Communal Living Experiments: Shakers, Harmonists, and Oneida

Explore three influential early American religious sects that pioneered radical communal living, shared resources, and unique social structures.

By Garret Merkley · Explainer · Jun 6, 2026

Branched from Community Formation and Social Structure in Early Religious Sects

Quick take

Early American religious sects like the Shakers, Harmonists, and Oneida formed self-sufficient communal societies based on shared resources and labor.
Driven by distinct spiritual beliefs, they adopted unconventional social norms, including celibacy or 'complex marriage.'
These experiments offered alternative models for social organization and economic production in nascent America.
Their varied successes and eventual declines provide insights into utopian ideals, economic innovation, and community sustainability.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, as the United States was finding its footing, several religious groups believed their faith called for a radical departure from conventional society. These groups established communal living experiments, pooling all property and labor, and often adopting unique social structures. The Shakers, Harmonists, and Oneida Community stand out as some of the most prominent examples, each offering a distinct vision of a more perfect society.

The Shakers: "Hands to Work, Hearts to God"

Founded by "Mother" Ann Lee, the Shakers officially known as the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, believed in communal ownership, gender equality, pacifism, and celibacy. Their worship was characterized by ecstatic dancing and singing, which gave them their popular name. Shaker communities were meticulously organized, with labor divided among members to achieve self-sufficiency. Their commitment to quality craftsmanship, particularly in furniture and agricultural products like seeds and herbs, generated significant income, allowing their communities to thrive for decades.

The Harmonists: Seeking Purity and the Second Coming

Led by George Rapp, the Harmonists were a group of German Pietists who believed the Second Coming of Christ was imminent and sought to live a pure, communal life in preparation. They practiced celibacy, strict discipline, and communal ownership of all property. The Harmonists were highly skilled farmers, vintners, and industrialists, establishing incredibly successful communities in Harmony, Pennsylvania; New Harmony, Indiana; and finally Economy, Pennsylvania. Their economic prowess allowed them to build impressive towns and amass considerable wealth, which was managed collectively.

The Oneida Community: Perfectionism and Complex Marriage

Established by John Humphrey Noyes, the Oneida Community in upstate New York believed in achieving spiritual perfection and freedom from sin on earth. They famously practiced "complex marriage," where every man was considered married to every woman, and exclusive attachments were discouraged to foster a broader sense of community and love. Sexual relations were regulated, often involving "male continence" as a form of birth control. Economically, Oneida was remarkably successful, initially producing animal traps and silk, and later becoming famous for its high-quality silverware, a business that still exists today.

These communal experiments were significant for several reasons. They challenged conventional notions of family, property, and gender roles, offering radical alternatives to mainstream American society. Economically, they demonstrated innovative approaches to manufacturing, agriculture, and resource management, often achieving remarkable self-sufficiency and prosperity through collective effort. Their stories highlight the enduring American quest for religious freedom and utopian ideals, influencing later social reformers and cooperative movements, even as most eventually dissolved due to internal pressures, leadership changes, or changing external circumstances.

Group	Key Beliefs	Social Structure	Economic Focus	Peak Period
Shakers	Millennialism, celibacy, gender equality	Celibacy, communal living, gender-separated housing	Furniture, seeds, herbs, crafts	Mid-19th Century
Harmonists	Pietism, imminent Second Coming, purity	Celibacy (initially), strict hierarchy, communal living	Agriculture, industry (textiles, distilleries, wine)	Early-Mid 19th Century
Oneida Community	Perfectionism, freedom from sin	"Complex marriage," male continence, communal child-rearing	Animal traps, silk, silverware manufacturing	Mid-Late 19th Century

What eventually happened to these communities?

The Shaker communities gradually declined due to their celibacy, which prevented new births, and the difficulty of attracting new adult converts. The Harmonists eventually dissolved due to internal disputes, changes in leadership, and a dwindling membership over several generations. The Oneida Community voluntarily transitioned from a communal society to a joint-stock company in 1881, largely due to internal and external pressures regarding "complex marriage," with many members becoming shareholders in the successful silverware business.

How did their unique social structures, like celibacy or "complex marriage," function day-to-day?

In Shaker and Harmonist communities, celibacy meant men and women lived in separate quarters, and interactions were carefully regulated to maintain spiritual purity. For the Oneida Community's "complex marriage," relationships were managed through a system called "stirpiculture" or "mutual criticism," where community elders often guided pairings and sexual activity, aiming to prevent exclusive attachments and foster a collective sense of family. Children were raised communally rather than by biological parents alone.

Were these groups financially successful, and how did they achieve it?

Yes, all three communities achieved significant financial success through hard work, efficient organization, and a focus on producing high-quality goods. They pooled all resources, eliminated personal debt, and benefited from collective labor. Shakers were known for their furniture and agricultural products; Harmonists excelled in agriculture and various industries; and Oneida found prosperity first in animal traps and later in its renowned silverware manufacturing.

Were there other significant communal living experiments in early America?

Absolutely. While the Shakers, Harmonists, and Oneida are among the most well-known, early America saw a wave of communitarian movements, both religious and secular. Examples include the Amana Colonies (religious), Brook Farm (transcendentalist), and New Harmony (secular socialist), each with its own unique vision and structure.

What lasting legacy did these sects leave behind?

Beyond their physical structures and artifacts (like Shaker furniture or Oneida silverware), these communities left a legacy of social experimentation and innovation. They challenged norms around property, family, gender, and labor, demonstrating alternative ways of living. Their stories offer valuable insights into the complexities of utopian ideals, the challenges of communal living, and the enduring human desire to create a more perfect society.