Polygamy in Early Mormonism and Its Enduring Legacy

How Joseph Smith's practice of plural marriage shaped the LDS Church, fractured the faith, and continues to define Mormon identity today.

By Garret Merkley · Explainer · Jun 14, 2026

Branched from Beyond One Church: Understanding the Competing Legacies of Joseph Smith

Quick take

Joseph Smith introduced polygamy as a secret doctrine in the 1830s; the LDS Church officially discontinued it in 1890 but the practice persists in splinter groups.
Polygamy was theologically justified as a restoration of Old Testament practice and tied to concepts of eternal marriage and exaltation in Mormon cosmology.
The practice drove intense persecution, internal conflict, and a permanent split between mainstream Mormonism and fundamentalist offshoots that still practice it.
Today, polygamy remains a flashpoint for how different Mormon groups define authenticity and authority within the faith.

Polygamy—the practice of one person having multiple spouses—was a central but deeply controversial feature of early Mormonism. Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, began practicing plural marriage secretly in the 1830s and taught it as a sacred principle to trusted followers. The practice remained hidden from the broader church and public for years, creating a schism between Smith's private theology and his public statements. When polygamy eventually became known, it ignited fierce opposition from both mainstream American society and many church members, shaped the church's westward migration, and ultimately led to a permanent theological and organizational split that defines Mormonism to this day.

How Polygamy Emerged and Spread in Early Mormon Communities

Joseph Smith began practicing plural marriage around 1831–1832, though the first documented marriage to a second wife occurred in 1835. For nearly a decade, Smith kept the practice secret, marrying at least 30 women while publicly denying it and condemning polygamy in church publications. Some of these marriages were to women already married to other men (polyandry), complicating the practice further. Smith framed polygamy as a restoration of Old Testament patriarchal marriage and as a revealed principle directly from God, shared only with the most faithful members. This secrecy created a two-tiered church: an inner circle aware of and practicing plural marriage, and an outer membership kept in the dark.

After Smith's death in 1844, Brigham Young, his successor as church president, made the controversial decision to publicly acknowledge and promote polygamy. Young believed plural marriage was essential to Mormon theology and identity. Under Young's leadership, the church migrated to Utah, where polygamy was practiced openly within Mormon communities for decades. Young himself had over 50 wives and fathered approximately 60 children. By the 1870s, roughly 20–30% of Mormon households were polygamous, though the practice was most common among church leaders and the wealthy, who could afford to support multiple families.

The Theology Behind Plural Marriage

Mormon leaders justified polygamy through a distinctive theological framework. They taught that plural marriage was a restoration of biblical patriarchal marriage and a sign of the true church. More importantly, they linked polygamy to Mormon concepts of eternal marriage and exaltation—the idea that righteous individuals could progress to godhood in the afterlife. In Mormon theology, marriage is not merely a civil or earthly contract but an eternal covenant that binds spouses together beyond death. Polygamy, proponents argued, allowed righteous men to have multiple eternal companions and increase their posterity in the celestial kingdom, advancing their spiritual progression. Women were taught that being sealed to a righteous man in plural marriage was a path to exaltation and that refusing polygamy could jeopardize their salvation.

This theological framing made polygamy far more than a social practice—it became woven into core Mormon doctrines about the nature of God, family, and eternal progression. The practice was also connected to ideas about gathering the righteous, building Zion (the Mormon promised land), and fulfilling what Mormons saw as God's plan for the latter days. This deep theological embedding meant that abandoning polygamy would require significant doctrinal revision, not merely a policy change.

Persecution, Federal Pressure, and the 1890 Manifesto

Polygamy became the primary catalyst for persecution of Mormons in 19th-century America. Mainstream society viewed the practice as immoral and un-American, and it became a rallying point for anti-Mormon sentiment. Federal laws, beginning with the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862, criminalized polygamy and threatened Mormon property and political autonomy. The U.S. government disincorporated the LDS Church, seized its assets, and jailed church leaders. Utah's path to statehood was explicitly conditional on the church abandoning polygamy. Facing existential pressure, LDS Church President Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto, officially discontinuing the practice. The decision was framed as divine revelation—God had commanded the church to stop, just as He had commanded them to practice it.

The Manifesto was not absolute, however. Some church leaders continued to perform plural marriages in secret for decades afterward, and the church's official position on whether the ban was eternal or temporary remained ambiguous for years. This ambiguity created space for dissent and enabled the emergence of fundamentalist offshoots who claimed the church had betrayed its core doctrines.

The Permanent Split: Mainstream LDS and Fundamentalist Branches

The abandonment of polygamy fractured Mormonism into competing branches. The mainstream LDS Church, now the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, officially excommunicates members who practice or advocate for polygamy. However, various fundamentalist Mormon groups—including the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (FLDS) and smaller independent groups—broke away and continued the practice, viewing themselves as the true keepers of Joseph Smith's original revelation. These groups argue that the 1890 Manifesto was a compromise with worldly pressure, not a genuine divine command, and that the mainstream church abandoned essential doctrine. The FLDS, under leaders like Warren Jeffs, became the most visible and controversial polygamist group, attracting media attention for alleged abuse, forced marriages, and financial exploitation. Smaller fundamentalist communities practice polygamy with varying degrees of isolation and controversy.

This split created a permanent identity crisis within Mormonism. The mainstream LDS Church had to redefine itself without the practice that had once been central to its theology and culture. Fundamentalist groups, by contrast, built their entire identity around fidelity to what they saw as Smith's original vision. Both claim authenticity; both claim to represent true Mormonism. This unresolved tension continues to shape how different Mormon communities understand their own history and legitimacy.

Why This Matters and What It Still Affects Today

Polygamy's legacy extends far beyond historical curiosity. For the mainstream LDS Church, it remains a source of theological awkwardness and identity management. The church acknowledges that Joseph Smith practiced polygamy but emphasizes that it was abandoned and is no longer doctrine. Yet the practice is still embedded in Mormon scripture (the Doctrine and Covenants) and in foundational theological concepts like eternal marriage and exaltation. The church has worked to distance itself from its polygamous past while maintaining core doctrines that historically justified the practice. This creates an ongoing tension between historical authenticity and modern respectability. For many ex-Mormons and critics, polygamy exemplifies how the church has revised its history and doctrine under external pressure, raising questions about its truthfulness and authority.

For fundamentalist groups, polygamy remains the defining marker of faithfulness and the clearest evidence that the mainstream church fell away from true doctrine. Polygamy practice becomes a test of loyalty and a boundary marker that separates the faithful remnant from the apostate majority. This has enabled abuse and control, as leaders use theological justification for practices that would be illegal and condemned outside the group. Polygamist communities have become sites of documented exploitation, particularly of women and children, making polygamy a contemporary social justice issue, not merely a historical one.

More broadly, polygamy illustrates how a religious practice can become so theologically embedded that abandoning it requires either a major doctrinal shift or a permanent schism. It shows how persecution and legal pressure can force religious movements to choose between their foundational beliefs and social acceptance. And it demonstrates how the same historical practice can be interpreted as either a sign of authentic faith or a marker of apostasy, depending on which Mormon branch you ask.

The Numbers

Joseph Smith married at least 30 women, some already married to other men (polyandry).
Brigham Young had over 50 wives and approximately 60 children.
By the 1870s, roughly 20–30% of Mormon households in Utah practiced polygamy.
The 1890 Manifesto officially ended the practice, but some leaders secretly performed plural marriages for decades after.
Today, fundamentalist groups still practicing polygamy number in the tens of thousands, though exact figures are difficult to verify.

Did Joseph Smith actually practice polygamy, or is this a myth?

Joseph Smith did practice polygamy. This was confirmed by the LDS Church itself in 2014 through official essays acknowledging that Smith married at least 30 women. For over 150 years, the church denied or downplayed this, but historical and documentary evidence is now accepted by mainstream Mormon scholars and leadership. Smith kept the practice secret from the broader church and public, which is why it remained controversial even among early Mormons.

Why did the LDS Church abandon polygamy if it was supposed to be a divine principle?

The church officially abandoned polygamy in 1890 due to intense federal pressure and the threat to Utah's statehood. The Manifesto framed this as a new revelation from God, but the timing and circumstances made it clear that external legal and political pressure was the primary driver. The church needed to be accepted by mainstream America to survive and grow. Some church members and leaders have questioned whether the ban was truly divine or a pragmatic compromise. Fundamentalist groups argue it was the latter, which is why they reject it.

How many Mormons practice polygamy today?

The mainstream LDS Church does not practice polygamy and excommunicates members who do. However, various fundamentalist Mormon offshoots continue the practice. The FLDS Church and smaller independent polygamist groups collectively have tens of thousands of members, though exact numbers are hard to pin down because many groups are secretive or isolated. The practice is illegal in the United States, though enforcement is inconsistent.

Is polygamy still part of Mormon theology, even though it's not practiced?

Officially, no—the mainstream LDS Church teaches that polygamy is not part of current doctrine. However, the theological concepts that justified polygamy—eternal marriage, exaltation, celestial progression—remain central to Mormon belief. The practice is still mentioned in Mormon scripture (the Doctrine and Covenants), and the church has not explicitly condemned it as sinful or false, only as not currently practiced. This ambiguity allows fundamentalist groups to argue that the doctrine remains valid even if the practice is suspended. The church has worked to separate the theology from the practice, but this remains theologically awkward.

What's the difference between the LDS Church and fundamentalist Mormon groups?

The mainstream LDS Church (headquartered in Salt Lake City) officially abandoned polygamy in 1890 and is now one of the world's largest religions with over 17 million members. Fundamentalist groups broke away because they believed the church betrayed its core doctrines by abandoning polygamy. The FLDS, led until recently by Warren Jeffs, is the largest fundamentalist group. Both claim to represent true Mormonism, but they have radically different practices, leadership structures, and relationships with mainstream society. The LDS Church is now a respectable, mainstream religion; fundamentalist groups are often isolated, secretive, and associated with abuse and exploitation.

Sources

LDS Church official essays on plural marriage, published 2014–2015, acknowledge Joseph Smith's polygamy and provide historical context.
Brigham Young University's Maxwell Institute and academic Mormon historians (including Terryl Givens, Kathleen Flake) provide peer-reviewed scholarship on polygamy's role in early Mormon theology and practice.
The 1890 Manifesto is the primary source for the LDS Church's official discontinuation of polygamy; historical records show some plural marriages continued secretly afterward.
Fundamentalist LDS groups' own publications and court records (particularly Warren Jeffs' FLDS Church) document their theological justifications for continuing polygamy.